胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题

第一章：语言学导论

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.

A. contact

B. communication

C. relation

D. community

2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?

A. tree

B. typewriter

C. crash

D. bang

3. The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖ is __________.

A. interrogative

B. directive

C. informative

D. performative

4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say―碎碎（岁岁）平安‖as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?

A. Interpersonal

B. Emotive

C. Performative

D. Recreational

5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?

A. Transferability

B. Duality

C. Displacement

D. Arbitrariness

6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?

—A nice day, isn’t it?

— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.

A. Emotive

B. Phatic

C. Performative

D. Interpersonal

7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.

A. Performance

B. Competence

C. Langue

D. Parole

8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.

It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.

A. cultural transmission

B. productivity

C. displacement

D. duality

9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.

A. Psycholinguistics

B. Anthropological linguistics

C. Sociolinguistics

D. Applied linguistics

10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.

A. Linguistic theory

B. Practical linguistics

C. Applied linguistics

D. Comparative linguistics

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.

12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.

13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.

14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.

15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.

16. Only human beings are able to communicate.

17. . De Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.

18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.

19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.

20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.

III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)

21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.

22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.

23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.

24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.

25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.

26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.

27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.

28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.

29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.

30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Design feature

32. Displacement

33. Competence

34.Synchronic linguistics

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?

（南开大学，2004）

36.Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）

第二章：语音

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.

A. intonation

B. tone

C. pronunciation

D. voice

2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).

A. allophone

B. phone

C. phoneme

D. morpheme

3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.

A. analogues

B. tagmemes

C. morphemes

D. allophones

4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.

A. glottis

B. vocal cavity

C. pharynx

D. uvula

5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.

A. wide

B. closing

C. narrow

D. centering

6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.

A. minimal pairs

B. allomorphs

C. phones

D. allophones

7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?

A. Acoustic phonetics

B. Articulatory phonetics

C. Auditory phonetics

D. None of the above

8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?

A. [n]

B. [m]

C. [ b ]

D. [p]

9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?

A. [i:]

B. [ u ]

C. [e]

D. [ i ]

10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?

A. Voiceless

B. Voiced

C. Glottal stop

D. Consonant

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.

12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.

13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely,the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.

14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.

15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.

16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.

17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.

18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.

19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.

20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place

a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.

22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing

__________.

23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.

24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.

25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without

__________.

26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.

27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.

28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.

29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.

30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Sound assimilation

32. Suprasegmental feature

33. Complementary distribution

34. Distinctive features

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）

36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开04）

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）

(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop

(2) low front vowel

(3) lateral liquid

(4) velar nasal

(5) voiced interdental fricative

第三章：词汇

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.

A. lexical words

B. grammatical words

C. function words

D. form words

2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.

A. inflectional

B. free

C. bound

D. derivational

3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.

A. three

B. four

C. five

D. six

4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.

A. prefixes

B. suffixes

C. infixes

D. stems

5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.

A. derivational affix

B. inflectional affix

C. infix

D. back-formation

6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.

A. affixation

B. back-formation

C. insertion

D. addition

7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.

A. acronymy

B. clipping

C. initialism

D. blending

8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.

A. blending

B. clipping

C. back-formation

D. acronymy

9. The stem of disagreements is __________

A. agreement

B. agree

C. disagree

D. disagreement

10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.

A. lexeme

B. phoneme

C. morpheme

D. allomorph

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.

12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.

13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.

14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.

15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.

16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.

17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.

18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.

19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.

20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.

22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.

23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.

24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.

25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to

__________ class.

26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.

27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.

28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.

29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a__________.

30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Blending

32. Allomorph

33. Closed-class word

34. Morphological rule

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）

36. What are the main features of the English compounds?

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）

I II

(1) acronym a. foe

(2) free morpheme b. subconscious

(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO

(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed

(5) prefix e. calculation

第四章：句法

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. The sentence structure is ________.

A. only linear

B. only hierarchical

C. complex

D. both linear and hierarchical

2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.

A. large

B. small

C. finite

D. infinite

3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.

A. lexical

B. morphological

C. linguistic

D. combinational

4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.

A. right

B. wrong

C. grammatical

D. ungrammatical

5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.

A. coordinator

B. particle

C. preposition

D. subordinator

6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.

A. recursive

B. grammatical

C. social

D. functional

7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.

A. how words and phrases form sentences.

B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words

C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences

D. all of the above.

8. The head of the phrase ―the city Rome‖ is __________.

A. the city

B. Rome

C. city

D. the city Rome

9. The phrase ―on the shelf‖ be longs to __________ construction.

A. endocentric

B. exocentric

C. subordinate

D. coordinate

10. The sentence ―They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.‖ is a __________

sentence.

A. simple

B. coordinate

C. compound

D. complex

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.

12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.

14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.

16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.

17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.

18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.

19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.

20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.

24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.

25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________clause.

27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.

28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.

29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and

among natural languages.

30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Syntax

32. IC analysis

33. Hierarchical structure

34. Trace theory

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）

36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of ―more beautiful flowers‖ by means of IC analysis. （北京二外国语大学，2004）

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:

The student wrote a letter yesterday.

第五章：意义

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.

A. Plato

B. Bloomfield

C. Geoffrey Leech

D. Firth

2.―We shall know a word by the company it keeps.‖ This statement represents

_______.

A. the conceptualist view

B. contexutalism

C. the naming theory

D. behaviorism

3. Which of the following is NOT true?

A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.

C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.

D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.

4. ―Can I borrow your bike?‖_______ ―You have a bike.‖

A. is synonymous with

B. is inconsistent with

C. entails

D. presupposes

5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,

called semantic features.

A. Predication analysis

B. Componential analysis

C. Phonemic analysis

D. Grammatical analysis

6. ―Alive‖ and ―dead‖ are ______________.

A. gradable antonyms

B. relational antonyms

C. complementary antonyms

D. None of the above

7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the

non-linguistic world of experience.

A. Reference

B. Concept

C. Semantics

D. Sense

8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.

A. Polysemy

B. Synonymy

C. Homonymy

D. Hyponymy

9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.

A. homonyms

B. polysemies

C. hyponyms

D. synonyms

10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.

A. grammatical rules

B. selectional restrictions

C. semantic rules

D. semantic features

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.

12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.

15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.

16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.

17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.

18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.

19. ―It is hot.‖ is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.

20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.

22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.

25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called__________.

26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called

__________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.

30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Entailment

32. Proposition

33. Componential analysis

34. Reference

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35. What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?

Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36. What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37. For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a)words and (b) words.

(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief

b. bull, rooster, drake, ram

(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, car

b. milk, alcohol, rice, soup

(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractor

b. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）

第七章：语言、文化和社会

[注：第六章无测试题]

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.

A. Psycholinguistics

B. Sociolinguistics

C. Applied linguistics

D. General linguistics

2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.

A. use of words

B. use of structures

C. accent

D. morphemes

3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.

A. Regional variation

B. Language variation

C. Social variation

D. Register variation

4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.

A. Geographical barriers

B. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speech

C. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to change

D. Social barriers

5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.

A. Language interference

B. Language changes

C. Language planning

D. Language transfer

6._________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuu m from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.

A. Regional variation

B. Changes in emotions

C. Variation in connotations

D. Stylistic variation

7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.

A. lingua franca

B. register

C. Creole

D. national language

8.Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.

A. vernacular languages

B. creoles

C. pidgins

D. sociolects

9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their

____ counterparts with the same social background.

A. female; male

B. male; female

C. old; young

D. young; old

10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the

―polite‖ society from general use.

A. slang

B. euphemism

C. jargon

D. taboo

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.

12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.

13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term ―speech variety‖ can n ot be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.

14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.

15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.

16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.

17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.

18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.

19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.

20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.

22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.

23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a

__________ variety of a language.

24. Language standardization is also called language __________.

25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.

26.__________ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually range s on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.

27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or

__________ language of a country.

28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.

29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.

30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Lingua franca

32. Regional dialect

33. Register

34.Sociolinguistics

V. Answer the following questions. (20%)

35. Is American English superior to African English? Why or why not? （中国人民大学，2003）

36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese? （东北师范大学，2004）

VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)

37.Explain the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）

第八章：语言的使用

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)

1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________is considered.

A. reference

B. speech act

C. practical usage

D. context

2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.

A. pragmatic

B. grammatical

C. mental

D. conceptual

3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n)_________.

A. constative

B. directive

C. utterance

D. expressive

4. Which of the following is true?

A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.

B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.

C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.

D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.

5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.

A. in the late 50’s of the 20the century

B. in the early 1950’s

C. in the late 1960’s

D. in the early 21st century

6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

A. A locutionary act

B. An illocutionary act

C. A perlocutionary act

D. A performative act

7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.

A. to get the hearer to do something

B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the case

C. to commit the speaker to some future course of action

D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs

8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.

A. in their illocutionary acts

B. in their intentions expressed

C. in their strength or force

D. in their effect brought about

9. __________ is advanced by Paul Grice

A. Cooperative Principle

B. Politeness Principle

C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar

D. Adjacency Principle

10.When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.

A. impoliteness

B. contradictions

C. mutual understanding

D. conversational implicatures

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)

11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.

12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context

of language use was left unconsidered.

13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.

14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.

15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.

16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.

17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences

18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.

19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.

20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.

III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)

21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an__________.

23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.

24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.

25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.

26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.

29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Conversational implicature

32. Performative

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出

Chapter3 Lexicon Lexical change

3.1 What is word? 3.1.1 Three senses of word 3.1.2 Identification of words 1) stability 2) Relative uninterruptibility 3) A minimum free form 3.1.3 Classification of words 1) Variable and invariable words 2) Grammatical words and lexical words 3) closed-class words and open

3.2 The Formation of Word 3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morpheme destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 2) Morphology which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

3.2.2 Types of morphemes 1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme 2) Root, affix and stem 3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix ?Inflectional affixes often only add a minute or delicate grammat to the stem, therefore serve to produce different forms of a sin derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. ?Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word th whereas derivational affixes might or might not. ?Inflectional affixes are conditioned by the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence; deriv

第7章Language, Culture and Society 第一部分Language and culture 一、Language and culture 语言与文化的关系 In a broad sense, culture means the total way of a people, including the patterns of beliefs, language, institutions, techniques, customs, and objects that shape the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may mean local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. The relationships are as follows: (1) Culture is a wider system that includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. (2) Culture affects language. Culture universals and biological universals lead to linguistic universals. E.g. the seven days of a week. In addition, different cultural features produce different linguistic features. E.g. “24 jie qi” in Chinese. (3) Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s beliefs, attitudes and world outlooks etc. (4) Language plays an important role in perpetuating culture over time, especially, in print form. Therefore, on the one hand, language as an integral part of human beings, runs through his thinking and way of viewing the world. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. 二、The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, there are two important points in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between languages is relative. And this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. Consequently, two versions of the hypothesis have been developed, a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical. 三、Culture in language teaching classroom? 怎样实现；两者关系 There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class: (1)To get the students familiar with cultural differences; (2)To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will; (3)To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. Therefore, successful mastery of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure. 四、Firth 语境说的观点 Firth tried to set up a model to illustrate the close relationships between language use and its co-occurrent factors. He developed the theory of context of situation: